Hello,
I think you own a RaspberryPi 1st version( or a derivative.. )..

The 'bcm2835' could be found in:
. Raspberry Pi Model A,
. Raspberry Pi Model B, B+
. The Compute Module
. Raspberry Pi Zero

At least the frequency Scheduler reports a fixed value of 700Mhz,
Your BogoMIPS report is also inline with 'bcm2835'( Single core, 32bit ARMv11@700Mhz )..

I think you should try with:
https://mirror.leaseweb.com/devuan/devuan_ascii/embedded/devuan_ascii_2.0.0_armel_raspi1.img.xz

If you had already tried,
The best Option, would be to try to fix sdcard frequency to start with a fix *Default* speed and then try to Boot-Up..
This value bellow is the default( its what I have in my Board since the beguining... I am an Early Owner :) )

In /boot/config.txt
# First try with initial emmc clock of 50Mhz... ( should be the default .. but still, try to force it..you could have a diferent sdcard.. )
init_emmc_clock (50000000)

After that, if can't boot, please give us some bootup data like previously :)

Good Luck,
Regards

--
s@po <tuxd3v@???>